Unit 12 Sociocultural Issues in Sport and Exercise Assignment Brief | Boston College

Assignment Brief

Understand the social theories used to study and interpret sport and exercise in society

Somerset West and Taunton Council are converging funding for sport and physical activity within the area.
This report summarises the four social theories used to study sport and society and will demonstrate the impact that sport can have on society. The report will provide justification why more funding in sport will have an overall positive impact on the local community.

What is sport?

According to Sport England who follow the charter on sport set out by the Council of Europe, “Sport means all forms of physical activity, which through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels”.

Sport is something that we all do, sometimes without even knowing that we are doing it. Sport can be viewed in many different ways from a recreational activity such as jogging or going to the gym to mass participation and competitive sports such as football or basketball to highly fuelled financially driven competitive sports such as Formula One motorsports or America’s Cup sailing. Some people view sport as entertainment, others view sport as a social activity as they come together and play (or watch) sports for enjoyment and pleasure whilst for some it is a highly competitive and professional motivation for participating in sport.

There is often debate about what activities are and are not a sport and there are many examples of such activities which to some people are sports, such as Darts or Tug-o-War however are not viewed as official sports by some authorities or countries. Tug-of-War was considered a sport and in the early 1900’s it was a  competitive sport in the Olympic Games however in 1920 it was removed from the list of Olympic sports because of the introduction of other more popular ‘recognised’ sports. Darts is another controversial sport which was only officially recognised by Sport England in 2005, prior to that is was not considered a sport because it did not have enough focus on physical activity. That said, although it is not an aerobic sport it does require physical skill involving the accurate throwing of the dart which is a closed skill which needs to be developed and mastered in order to play well. One ‘sport’ which has not been made official is the card game Bridge. The England Bridge Union (EBU) are appealing against a decision made in 2015 that bridge did not have the level of ‘physical activity’ required to qualify it as a sport however the EBU state that card shuffling and dealing should be considered a physical closed skill, just like throwing a dart or firing a bow in archery and therefore warrants being classified officially as a sport.

There are also many new recreational activities which over the years have become recognised as sports such as snowboarding, BMX bike riding and horse-riding. One new pastime which has grown in popularity most recently is paddle-boarding which is currently being promoted as a future Olympic sport to be included in the future event. It is already due to be a sport category in the Pan American Games in 2023.

So the answer to what is a sport is ever changing as new sports are invented and recognised.  Therefore there is not necessarily a definitive answer to define a sport. It can be competitive or non-competitive, professional or amateur, individual or team, indoors or outdoors, require specialist equipment/clothing or nothing special, have an associated cost or be free and be on the ground, in the air or on water. But it is recognised that it should involve a certain level of physical activity and skill.

Why is sport important to society?

Sport is important to society on many levels due to its own variety and diversity. Because sport can be enjoyed by anyone from any background it has far reaching impact on people, societies, countries, politics and economics. Sport, on some level, is a part of most people’s lives from watching big global events such as the Olympics or World Cups to going to the gym or kids learning to throw and catch a ball or playing video games about FIFA or other sports. Sport influences so many things in life such as what people watch on TV, what they read in newspapers, what they wear, when and where they travel (to attend events), who their role models and heroes are, what they spend their money on, and what they do in their spare time – so sport has a huge impact on society.

But like most things,  sport can have both a positive and negative impact on society. As you can see there are far more positive impacts of sport on society than negative ones which is why sport is so important to society in general.

Positive Impacts –

• Brings people together and encourages inclusion when participating in group sporting activities – ability to make new friends
• Way of meeting new people and making friends with people with things in common – be a good opportunity to meet new people with similar interests
• Encourages social and cultural mixing and sharing of different experiences through participation – enables interaction with people from backgrounds that you might not have previously missed with which can help to broaden your perspective and experiences which leads to more acceptance of others
• Way to escape stress of daily life through participation or just following – good activity to destress and relax which promotes a better work/life balance and better mental and physical wellbeing
• Boosts tourism through attendance at international sporting events – due to travel to tournament/match locations which may involve hotel accommodation, eating in restaurants and visiting tourist attractions in the place of the event
• Can provide revenue for individuals, clubs, communities etc through membership fees, coaching programmes, participation etc – generates income which can then be fed back into the sports and will give more job opportunities that involve sport which could influence career choices
• Help to reduce obesity and associated health issues through participation – puts less stress on the health care as more people would be looking after their own personal health through exercise
• Can provide jobs and volunteer opportunities which support sport in the community which can provide a sense of pride/purpose – be a good way to give back to the community as you are helping others
• Can help form National Pride through international teams – can boost the nation and encourage positive mindset
• Can be a platform for worldwide causes such as LGBT, Black Lives Matter, Human Rights etc.g. 2022 World Cup football brought to light human rights issues in Qatar – a good way to spread awareness of issues as lots of people will be watching the events so people are more likely to take action on the issues
• Good for physical and mental fitness and health through participation and through supporting – could reduce the risk of depression as endorphins are released during exercise
• Can dictate fashion by starting clothing trends such as jogging bottoms, trainers, football shirts etc – an easy way of promoting a brand as if anyone famous starts wearing the brand then people will follow
• Participation in sport can reduce crime rates as a distraction – gives people something to do and will keep people busy doing something good
• Encourages sportsmanship, values and morals through participation and understanding of the rules of sports – can reduce the risk of crime in the area as people will be learning what’s acceptable and what’s not
• Provides mentors, idols and aspirations for others – good role models and people to follow and look up to from all areas of professional sport – can give people aspirations and will give people motivation to do well

Negative Impacts –

• Can lead to violence when emotions and behaviours are not controlled (e.g. Football hooliganism) – demonstrates to people what’s not acceptable in sport which can be useful in society
• Can lead to corruption when money becomes more important than the sport or gambling takes over – can start to miss the point of why people play sport as its more about enjoyment than money
• Can lead to drug related issues in those participating who are constantly striving to the best of the best – the public might think that this is normal and then could start to do it which might lead into health problems, crime an illegal activities
• Can produce scandal in professional sport when gamesmanship activities happen, or rules are broken – could ruin the following of the person or sport that it happened in
• Can glorify bad sports people as idols and promote gamesmanship – bad role models e.g. Nick Krygios is the ‘bad boy’ of tennis known for his bad behaviour on court – can be all about the attention even if its bad which can ruin the sport at it promotes all the bad things instead of the good things that happen
• Cheating can happen which is wrong at all levels of sport whether it be kids at school or professionals competing for high money stakes – promoting the wrong reasons to do sport and will ruin it for everyone

Sport contributes to many parts of our modern society, from businesses who sell sporting goods, to media companies who report on and broadcast sports events, to schools and colleges who use sport for educational purposes, to governments who invest in stadiums to host global sporting events which ultimately leads to tourism and global recognition.

Sport can also be used to control and influence people’s behaviours, which can be both positive and negative. From a positive standpoint, sport can help people to control their emotions and provide a positive channel for negative feelings. In young people, sport can help them to develop emotional intelligence around feelings of winning and losing, teamwork, leadership and friendship which are all important life skills. Other personal behaviours such as patience, taking turns and sharing can be developed in teams or through coaching and sports development programs. In adulthood, these behaviours are also being transferred through participating in or supporting sports when rules of sports and sportsmanship are applied. As the numbers participating in sporting activities increases, it can be argued that anti-social behaviours such as crime, drugs, cheating, or violence decrease as well as mental health issues related to depression and wellbeing. However, it can also be argued that sport can have a negative impact on behaviours such as creating an atmosphere which encourages violence either on or off the pitch. Competition and rivalry between teams and their supporters can boil over and lead to violence on the playing field or hoolagnism amongst fans.

In terms of control, those who have the power, either the media, the sponsors, professional players, clubs etc can influence and control what society can do. For example, the media can control what society do or do not watch on TV or read about in papers or online. Sporting equipment companies can influence what we buy in terms of sports products through advertising. From another angle, sport can control our political views on subjects such as equality relating to gender, race, sexuality etc. For those who play sports in a community team for example, they may have a very different view on social acceptance of others than people who have no interaction with people outside their own circles. Or if your sporting hero/heroine had strong views and started campaigning on (for example) equal pay for women in football, then you may be influenced by their views and opinions rather than form your own ideas. These are all examples of control.

Why are social theories used?

Social theories in general enable us to explain, analyse, interpret and fully understand how sport can impact on society. They are the analytical framework and models developed by sociologists that help to analyse evidence to study and understand the social impact of factors on our society.  Social theory can include many factors such as politics, family, religion, media, education and the economy. Social theories are used to identify relationships between all the social-economic and political factors which might be influenced, either positively or negatively by sports.

In general social theories are used to look at how and why the world works the way that it does and in particular they are useful for identifying problem areas and issues which can then be studied in more detail in order to seek improvement or change. So by using social theories in sport, it helps governing bodies to make decisions and mange sports for the good of the sporting world, when ‘sport’ is considered to be it’s own ‘micro-society’.

The four main social theories include –

• Functionalist theory – A theory that sees sport as inspirational
• Conflict theory – A theory that sees sport as an opiate
• Critical theory – A theory that sees sport as a social norm
• Figurational theory – A theory that sees sport as a social phenomenon

The Four Theories Comparison

The four theories explained below have different viewpoints on how sport can impact on society. The Functionalist theory is mainly based on how sport can contribute to society; The Conflict theory looks at how sport can be used by some to control society; The Critical theory identifies ways in which sport can encourage changes in society; and The Figurational theory looks specifically at the behaviours which are identified in relation to sport and exercise.

The Conflict theory is not liked by powerful and controlling people because it suggests that changes are needed to redistribution economic resources and it identifies problems in society therefore it portrays sport as an opiate that looks to cover up a number of social issues.

All these theories help society to view things in a certain way and from a specific perspective and it can depend on your intended outcome, political agenda or personal beliefs as to which theory you might choose for analysing the impact of sport on society. More often than not the best theories to use are the ones which bring about reflection and change which make society a fairer and better place.

Functionalist Theory:

Functionalist theory views each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole. In other words, society is diverse, but each different part has a function to play in contributing to the stability of the whole society. Society is a complex multi-structured system within which people must find ways to interrelate, with each part depending on all the others. (Adams, 2016)

The Functionalist theory breaks down the different parts of society and looks at how they all contribute to the overall society. Within the functionalist theory all the different parts need to be balanced and working smoothly  together to create a stable environment with shared values. Within the functionalist theory there are a number of different social institutions. They are education, family, religion, economy, politics, leisure, sports and media.  In theory if all these institutions work together in harmony based around a shared set of values, then a stable and balanced society will exist.

The Functionalist theory relates to sports because sport is also a system – a micro-society –  that is made up of inter-related parts (participants, teams, governing bodies, rules etc) which all have a common goal as a whole. The shared values which sport focusses around can be teamwork, competition, sportsmanship, motivation, physical fitness, mental well-being, rules of the sport or just the desire to enjoy participating or spectating and sport is seen as a source of inspiration. Sports of all sorts are character-building and for those starting to participate in sports at a young age they often learn skills such as self-discipline, respect, graciousness and sometimes more importantly how to accept losing because not everyone is always a winner in life. These are all basic socio-emotional values which sport can teach society.

The Functionalist theory is often used in sport to encourage overall participation, build sports development programs, increase socialisation of youths and communities, build common values and provide inspiration.

Positives

• Can promote the development of organised sports – which increases the amount of sport that happens in an area
• Increases the control and leadership of participants – gives people opportunities to lead and develop leadership skills
• Increases overall participation which leads to further development – can help with skills that might be used in life in general
• Coaching programmes – gives opportunity for people to improve
• Elite performance programs – can give people the opportunity to go into professional sports
• Improves health and fitness – so that the community is fitter and healthier which will benefit perssures on health care
• Increases peoples social networks – can link people together which can then help them outside of sports
• Encourages socialising – can build and make friendship groups which will then encourage them to come back and keep doing sports
• Encourages a positive attitude to work ethics – people will be working better together which will help productivity and work values
• Socio-emotional skill development – can develop social skills and communication skills through working together with others ina a team
• People from different backgrounds come together – will be a good opportunity to meet new people and make new friends and it will bring the community together
• Promotes social values and norms that have a positive effect – could reduce crime in the area due to the understanding of whats right and wrong
• Makes participants work as a team towards a common goal – builds teamwork and leadership skills which can be used in life

Negatives

• Assumes all social groups (race, class, ages, gender etc) get the same benefit – can be unfair on people who don’t have the same opportunities
• Does not recognise inequality that privileged people can gain – can put an unfair advantage on those who have the opportunities
• Overstates the positives of sport – can lose who people do sports and make it about personal gain instead of enjoyment
• Win at all costs mentality – focusses on the wrong reason why people do sport as it should be about fun and participation and not always winning

Pros and Cons –

There are many advantages to the Functionalist theory based on the contribution that sport can make to society through the promotion and development of sporting programs and activities in communities. This then increases overall participation in sports which can lead to an increased level of health and fitness in society. As we already know, sport can provide a good structure for discipline and team building which can in turn encourage positive work ethics and bring people together (from different communities and backgrounds) to reach common goals. However, the Functionalist theory has been criticised for over-emphasising the positives of sport in society especially when it assumes that all social and cultural groups might benefit equally from sports as it doesn’t always recognise that everyone has equal social access to participating. For example, in some communities where sport might be harder for less well-off people to get involved in due to cost of living issues you might only have participation from those that can afford either the time or the money to take part.

Sporting Examples

A real-life example of how the breakdown in one of these factors can cause dis-harmony in the sport and a negative impact on society was in 2018 when the Australian Cricket team were found guilty of cheating by using sandpaper and ball-tampering. This led to a scandal in the cricket world and those involved lost the respect of fellow players and received bans from playing. It also led to sponsors of the Australian cricket team terminating sponsorship deals which then had a financial impact on the sport of cricket in Australia. In this instance, you could say that this incident had a negative impact on society, but fortunately it was an isolated incident.

An example of the Functionalist theory and how sport has impacted on society in a more positive way is the recent 2022 Football World Cup which was held in Qatar, where despite many social and cultural differences (including issues on Human Rights) many nations supporters and players came together over their passion for the game of football. The countries and individuals who manage FIFA came together collectively to achieve the common goal of running a successful football tournament.

Also in grass-roots sport where the main participants are children and young people, sport can have a positive impact on society by using sports and physical exercise as the method for teaching and passing on socially acceptable behaviours such as fairness, teamwork, playing by the rules and

Recommendations for Somerset West and Taunton Council

Based on the functionalist theory, if the council were to increase funding and put the funds towards enhancing their youth sports development programs it would increase participation and future involvement in sports and physical activity at a grass roots level which will then have a longer lasting positive impact on the community. Young people will make new friends, create a future interest in staying fit and active, enjoy competitive sports and come together as a community around the shared interest. In order to continually run development programs, the council may wish to provide funding for local volunteers to be trained in various aspects of physical activity such as coaching, first aid, safeguarding, refereeing etc which would encourage people of all ages to get involved. Whether it is participating or volunteering, the council should ensure that it is as inclusive as possible on the grounds of race, gender, age, class etc

Conflict Theory:

Conflict theory suggests that people in positions of power – either political, economic or both – use sport for their own gain. (Adams, 2016)

The Conflict theory sees society being driven by money and power and suggests  that people already in positions of power with money use this for their own personal gain which can be either political and/or economic. The theory is based on the conflict between classes of society and the ongoing struggles to obtain an equal right to resources and power. The people who are rich and powerful are the decision makers who have the ability to determine what happens to the rest of society and it is this that creates the conflict and is called social control.  According to the theory, the upper middle classes use their social status to maintain social control.

There are four areas of the conflict theory that have been identified as to how the bourgeoisie (ie the wealthy capitalists) seek to gain social control are they are by (1) controlling the masses, (2) national pride, (3) power and (4) making money.

In terms of how the wealthy look to gain control, there are a number of ways such as via the media, the sponsors, professional players, clubs etc can influence and control what society can do. For example, the media can control what society do or do not watch on TV or read about in papers or online. Sporting equipment companies can influence what we buy in terms of sports products through advertising. From another angle, sport can control our political views on subjects such as equality relating to gender, race, sexuality etc. For those who play sports in a community team for example, they may have a very different view on social acceptance of others than people who have no interaction with people outside their own circles. Or if your sporting hero/heroine had strong views and started campaigning on (for example) equal pay for women in football, then you may be influenced by their views and opinions rather than form your own ideas. These are all examples of control.

The conflict theory relates to sport because there are many ways that people in positions of power can control what others do or how they behave. In sport, it is usually the media, sponsors and major sports club owners who are the people with the money and power who use sport to create more wealth and influence the masses by using sport as an opiate. The conflict theory also suggests that people with money and power think that the ‘masses’ should be playing or watching sport because it distracts them from wallowing in their own worse-off circumstances in life and so create resentment. But when the masses come together to support the sporting teams that represent their country then it can encourage and boost National Pride. National pride can have a very positive impact on society because it leads to people being happy and having a good state of mental health. Even when a country is going through economic crisis or even war, sport can bring national pride which makes all the bigger problems seem not so important, at least for the duration of the match or tournament.

Positives –

• Promotes National Pride – by providing an opportunity for the country to come together and get behind their National teams especially in major tournaments. It creates a unified response based on a passion for the sport. An example of this is the World Cup Football recently held in Qatar.
• Increases an interest in Sport – the sports will have a bigger following which could lead to greater participation, money generation, sponsorship
• Develops an awareness of the exploitation of sports people and spectators for others personal gain or profit through capitalist growth

Negatives –

• Identifies weak and problem areas within a society – can point out things that aren’t right or that need to change so that action can be taken
• Not well received by the upper middle class/powerful and influential people who stand to lose out – can divide society even further which could create conflict within the community
• Does not take into account diversity such as gender, race, age, ethnicity etc – can lead to some advantages gained in society
• Does not take into account that sport can have positive affects on mental health and wellbeing – it doesn’t promote the fact that if you are struggling with mental health issues you can use sport to help
• Assumes sport is an opiate targeted at those who are socially weaker – and is used to entertain and control the masses – explain
• Money is driving sporting decisions

Sporting Examples

Sky Sports TV often show high profile sporting events on subscription only channels or Pay-To-View channels which means that many who cannot afford it cannot watch the sport. Before big TV Giants such as Sky TV and NBC started charging viewers to watch, lots of sports were available to view on free channels such as BBC and ITV but now they know that more money can be made through big television deals, but this comes at a cost to some parts of society who can no longer afford to watch. It also means that there is added pressure on the professional sports people themselves as they are asked to compete in competitions all year round across the world in multiple time zones whereas previously, they would have been able to take time off needed for training, recuperation and rest so this adds mental and physical stress to the participants.

Alternate money-making sports competitions such as the IPL and the LIV Golf tournaments are also examples of how money and power are impacting sport. The IPL – Indian Premier League which is a cricket competition was created by Lalit Modi entirely to make lots of money and is estimated to be worth over $4billion. Some of the best cricket players from around the world play in this off-season league for the money and the personal prestige of playing amongst some of the greats.

Recommendations for Somerset West and Taunton Council

One way of turning a negative impact into a positive one on a local level could be to ask local companies, organisations or people with power and money to provide sponsorship or investment into local sports and physical activity. It would provide them with the commercial exposure, feel-good-factor or personal satisfaction that they would want whilst helping to provide the community with funding, facilities or equipment needed to increase participation in sports and physical activity. The council might wish to ask a sponsor to buy sports kit in return for having a company logo printed on it, or buy equipment, or even allow access to private land for certain activities such as fishing, water sports or cross-country running etc

Another idea based on the conflict theory, could be to obtain an entertainment licence to allow community sports club members to watch big national or global sporting events on a club TV. It would bring the community together in the sports clubhouse (where there might be a bar which could sell drinks and therefore create revenue) whilst watching sports events of mutual interest. It would provide community spirit, an interest in sports, possibly create revenue, allow those who cannot afford Sky (or pay-to-view subscription TV) to watch big events which would create community inclusion.

Critical Theory:

Critical theory is based on a few central ideas outlined. Groups are best identified by their shared values and conflicts of interest. For example, a group of young netball players who have formed a team for competitive reasons are far less likely to share values with an older group of women in the same league with very different social motives for playing and forming a team in the first place. Social life is an ever changing struggle involving persuasion, coercion, compromise and negotiation. The passage of time leads to a shift of power in societies and between groups. (Adams, 2016)

In the critical theory, groups of individuals are looked at in terms of their common goals and also their conflicts of interest and it is a theory that focusses on criticising society with a view to change. It is a common theory for understanding social issues around gender, homophobia and race and one of it’s main aims is to allow minority voices to be heard. The theory also encourages critical change which can be seen as a positive as it would cause a change in what needs to be changed. This can be done when politicians get involved as they can use sport to do many positive things for society such as make new laws, influence relations with other countries and also change social policy. For example, in 1980 many countries boycotted the Olympics because they were being held in Russia and politicians from those countries did not support Russian military action against Afghanistan so refused to participate.

Within the critical theory, there is the critical race theory and critical feminist theory which focus on race and gender issues respectively. The critical race theory states that racism is a ‘norm’ in sport/society and that non-whites are not put on an equal footing as their white counterparts. Similarly, the critical feminist theory states that sport/society is totally male orientated and that women are the ‘weaker sex’. Historically sport has been a male dominated are of life but over time more women have wanted to participate in sport as much as men have but sometimes this has brought controversy and has brought gender politics into sports. This theory challenges the concept that there are male-only sports and that women should be free to do them if they wish to. Many sports (most sports) which started out as make only, such as rugby and football are now becoming very popular with women too and it empowers women to do what they want and encourage other women to join in as well. The media can sometimes be accused of highlighting gender inequality in sports with their photos and media coverage of sports women making them look ‘glamourous’ or over-sexualising what they are doing or how they do their sports, whilst they masculinise mens sports by making them look brave, macho and strong – gender stereotyping.

Positives

• Gives minorities a platform for their voice – gives people an opportunity to speak when they might not have had before
• Challenges society to be all inclusive – gives society the chance to mix and build friendships
• Encourages participation in sports from minority groups – gives everyone a chance to participate irrespective of their background
• Increases diversity – brings the communities together whatever their background
• Promotes qualities including teamwork, fair play, mutual respect etc – through the medium of sports values and rules which may reduces crime rates
• Can bring about changes in laws – can have a lasting impact on the community
• Integral part of the education system from early years through to adulthood – builds skills that are used in education like teamwork and leadership
• Implement social policy through participation – makes people aware of the social policies around society
• Promotes good health and well-being – puts less stress on health care as more people are looking after themselves by regular exercise
• Brings communities, cultures and minorities together – a good way of meeting new people and making new friends
• Provides role models and inspirational figures – gives people someone to look up to and aspire to

Negatives

• Only considers minorities in isolation of each other – doesn’t take into account that minorities have the same opportunities
• No strategy for handling social problems and wrongdoing – when things get out of hand there is no way of fixing them
• Can bring political controversy into sport – which can shadow over the sport itself and ruin enjoyment

Pros and Cons –

The Critical Theory can be used to encourage positive changes in society by challenging social problems through sport such as race, inequality, feminism, etc. However, it does not go as far to provide the tools/processes or strategies needed to give a quick fix to the issues which might get raised which need transforming. This theory has been criticised for bringing too much politics into sport and spoiling the sport for those who do not always share the same political agendas which takes away from the enjoyment of the sport in favour of the political causes.

Sporting Examples

Related to the critical feminist theory , in the tennis world there has long been discussion about the inequality of prize money between male and female players on tour with men’s potential prize money in major tournaments far outweighing the prize money offered to female players and Billie-Jean King has been a role model for many women fighting for equality on all women’s sport.

There is also conflict around future financial investment in sport which is often in relation to the gender debate. With more spectators and followers for the mens version of sports such as football and rugby, the women’s sports often don’t get the same level of financial support as the mens however with the recent global successes of the England Lionesses (Womens Football)  and the England Roses (Women’s Rugby), there is more focus on the inequality.

Related to the critical race theory, Black Lives Matter has also had huge focus in the motorsport world, with Lewis Hamilton, who is a black British driver being a big ambassador for the BLM movement across the world.

Recommendations for Somerset West and Taunton Council

In relation to the Critical Theory, the council could look to put more funding behind getting girls into sports and breaking down the gender barriers. With more and more girls playing games like football, cricket and rugby the council could provide funding to ensure that provision is made for girls-only teams to play, get coaching/training and unisex kit is made available where appropriate. The council should also make sure that there a female changing facilities available at sports clubs/locations to ensure inclusion.

Another suggestion on the basis on critical theory, could be that the council support or set up more local leagues and divisions for sports and activities to encourage people from different parts of the region to meet up and compete in social or competitive matches. This would create a feeling of shared interest despite the age, gender, race etc of those taking part in the various teams.

Figurational Theory:

This theory is defined by those who believe social life is made up of patterns of interdependencies among different individuals and groups. This means that the individuals and groups all depend on one another. Within this, sport reflects both acceptable and non-acceptable behaviour in society. (Adams, 2016)

Figurational theory (also known as the civilising process)  is based on the principle that groups of people and also individuals are dependent on the actions of others in society and that sport is a social phenomenon. As Norbert Elias described figuration as ‘a structure of mutually oriented and dependent people’. This theory is also sometimes called a process because it focusses on a fluid process rather than a physical or static state. It’s a bit like the ‘Micro society’ in the functional theory only the figurational theory takes into account changes over time and movement.

Positives

• Reduction in violence in sport by enforcing rules and regulations – makes sports safer and fair for all to particpate
• Decrease in crime using sport as an alternate outlet to relieve boredom – gives people things to do as the boredom then leads to crime.
• Good stress reliever – sports releases any stress as it is a cathartic experience
• Focusses on historical connections between people/groups – can bring people of different backgrounds back together
• Growth in people watching and supporting sports – gives the sport a bigger following which can bring more people together to either play or watch it
• Safeguarding, law changes and regulations have made sport safer for all – making the sport safer will encourage more people to play it which will increase the amount of people that play and watch it

Negative

• Can incite violence – when emotions run high due to a win at all costs mentality or poor sportsmanship
• Does not focus on problems of day-to-day life – can leave gaps when it comes to problems in and outside of sport

Pros and Cons

Due to many changes in sports regulations, especially in contact sports, the level of violence has declined, and this is also reflected in society as people see that certain behaviours are no longer acceptable. On the flip side, sport can sometimes lead to aggression and violence too. Fights that break out on rugby or football pitches these days though are dealt with swiftly and with harsh penalties – sometimes players can get red cards, a ban or a financial fine.

Sporting Examples –

In a sport such as cricket, for example, there are a number of parts which make up ‘the sport’ and these can be the players, the coach/trainers, Manager, Physios/Medical team, umpires/officials, spectators etc Each of these roles have a different function to perform in order to maintain a stable environment. If the players don’t train to improve their skills,  then they’ll fail to be competitive and win matches. If the umpires make bad judgement calls, then they will lose the respect of the players and spectators which will bring down the sport. If the spectators fail to support their teams or switch to another club/team, then the club may lose motivation, money and ambition. So there are lots of scenarios which require each part of the sport to maintain certain rules, standards and code of ethics in order to thrive as a whole sport (or society).

In 2020, tennis player Novak Djokovic received a $10K fine for hitting a lines judge with a tennis ball. He has also received other such punishments for unsportsmanlike behaviour including throwing his racket at a spectator.

 Recommendations for Somerset West and Taunton Council

In order to address catharsis, the council could tackle this in a couple of ways by setting up activities and groups to support mental well-being. Either by providing a controlled and safe outlet for any pent up aggression/anger/emotion in setting up sports such as boxing, martial arts or rugby. Or in providing classes/sessions for stress-relieving activities such as jogging, Tai Chi, Yoga, Pilates etc which can help to combat pent up emotions.

Since it is important that society in general understands the differences between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, this can be looked at by running sessions on sportsmanship-like behaviour or ensure that this element of sport is brought into every training session and activity. It’s important that young people can identify with the emotional highs and lows of winning and losing in sport and know how they should act in those situations. When a player or a team wins then its important to acknowledge the participation of the other player or team and congratulate them on their efforts and behaviour during the course of the game/match/activity. This is about being gracious in defeat but also being a gracious winner too. It’s important to know that not everyone can always win and this is a lesson in sport which should also be reflected in society.

Sport is also not just about participation as there are many people, for whatever reason (injury, ill-health, time, money etc) that can only watch and support sports. As a council, you can encourage positive behaviours through having supporters clubs for some of your key sports teams or clubhouses where supporters can come together to enjoy watching and supporting their chosen sports. In providing the right environment for supporters you can discourage bad behaviours such as gangs, hooliganism, excessive drinking and crime.

In general, the council must ensure that all safeguarding and health and safety rules and regulations are followed and enforced so that everyone taking part or watching sport or physical activities of any sort are safe and protected.

Conclusion

In sport, it might not be a good decision to use just one of the theories on its own because they all offer different perspectives. In order to successfully come up with a plan for sports, you should look to use a combination of the theories depending on what you are looking to achieve. Based on the possible outcomes in this report, the Functional and Figurational theories together provide the Somerset West and Taunton Council with possibly the better opportunities and benefits for local society.

So going back to the section ‘Why is sport so important to society?’ you will see that I have listed out many generic positives that sport can have on society. In relation to Somerset West and Taunton, and taking the positives from the social theories,  I conclude that by increasing funding in sport to go towards the specific recommendations below you can achieve the following social benefits –

References:

Mark Adams 2016, Pearson

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282124548_Sociology_of_Sport

https://omnilogos.com/figurational-sociology-and-its-application-to-sport/

https://www.ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2102399.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Pamela-Serra/publication/282124548_Sociology_of_Sport/links/5603d99108ae596d25920a41/Sociology-of-Sport.pdf?origin=publication_detail

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